Verbal Elements

Cognate Objects

COs are true arguments of their predicate

This is shown by runing tests on the distinction between adjuncts and arguments. One of these tests is the ’do so test’ It shows that in an example like (1), the noun ’dance’ is an argument of the verb ’dance’ because ’do so’ functions as a proform for V’: “when do so is used as a substitute, it must stand for the verb and all its arguments”, (Macfarland 1995:104).

1. Examples

(1)

(1a)

ū	t(a)	ídō	(u)jɔ̀	ókō	úbī	mī	ǒchálà	ŋʷɔ̀	tʃ(e)	ǎlɛ̄	gɛ
1SG	dance(V)	dance(N)	cheerful	farm	back	my	Ochala	and	do	so/same	again
'I danced a cheerful dance in my garden and Ochala did so too.'

(1b)

*u

t(a)

ído

(u)jɔ

oko

ubi

mi

Ochala

ŋʷɔ

tʃ(e)

alɛ

ɛdo

dudu/ɛdo

ɛkpabjɛ

1SG

dance(V)

dance(N)

cheerful

farm

back

my

Ochala

and

do

so/same

sad

Intended: I danced a cheerful dance in the garden and Ochala did so a sad dance.

COs can be modified, including in relative clauses

(2)

u	t(a)	ido	k(i)	a	tʃ(e)	ujɔ
1SG	dance(V)	dance(N)	C	IMPF	COP1	cheerful/joy
‘I danced a cheerful dance’

fV marker

1. it shows up only with transitive verbs;
   1. it has a meaning similar to perfective;
   2. it is incompatible with negation;
   3. it is incompatible with A′
      1. extraction of any kind (questions, relative clauses);
   4. it is in complementary distribution with another marker, mV.

Complete situation

The morpheme fV has a perfective meaning and is used to decribe complete situations. It cannot be used to describe ongoing or habitual situations.

(3)

ù	f(i)	òdʒ(e)	àba̋tʃà	hì	(mɛ̄)
1SG	PERF1	morsel	cassava	cook	(already)
'I have cooked mashed cassava.'
*I cooked mashed cassava just now.
*I cooked mashed cassava (habitual).
*I am cooking mashed cassava.

Word order with fV

One of the most recognizable properties of fV is its influence on word order. The surface word order in Igala is SVO, including with the progressive and the imperfective markers. However, in the presence of fV, this is modified. This morpheme appears to surface in the usual verb slot, while the matrix verb appears sentence-finally.

(4a)

ù	hʲ	òdʒ(e)	à↑ba̋tʃà
1SG	cook	morsel	cassava
I cooked mashed cassava.'

(4b)

ù	f(i)	òdʒ(e)	àba̋tʃà	hì
1SG	PERF1	morsel	cassava	cook
'I have cooked mashed cassava.'

(5a)

ú	lʲ	ǒhìmìnì
1SG	see	ocean
'I saw the ocean'

(5b)

ù	f(i)	òhìmìnì	lí
1SG	PERF1	ocean	see
'I have seen the ocean'

About fV and the splitting verbs

When the verb is split, the first part of the verb is before the object and second part is after the object, including with the progressive and imperfective aspectual markers.

(6b)

ù	kpɔ̄	(ɔ)nà	lɛ́	fɔ̄
1SG	break-	door	DEF.DIST	-break
'I broke the door.'

(6b)

Ǒtʃálā	k(ɔ)	ēlā	lɛ́	da
Ochala	cut-	meat	DEF.DIST	-cut
'Ochala cut the meat.

(7a)

otʃala	a	d(u)	ɔbɛ	k(ɔ)	ela	lɛ	da
Ochala	IPFV	take	knife	cut-	meat	DEF.DIST	-cut
'Ochala will take the knife and cut the meat.'

(7b)

otʃala	na	d(u)	ɔbɛ	k(ɔ)	ela	lɛ	da
Ochala	PROG	take	knife	cut-	meat	DEF.DIST	-cut
'Ochala was cutting the meat with a knife.'

When f(i) is added to a sentence with a split verb, the word order seems to become SOV.

(8a)

ū	f(i)	ɔ̌nâ	lɛ̄	kpɔ̀	fɔ̄
1SG	PERF1	door	DEF.DIST	break-	-break
'I have broken the door.'

(8b)

Ǒtʃálā	f(i)	ela	lɛ	kɔ	da
Ochala	PERF1	meat	DEF.DIST	cut-	-cut
'Ochala has cut the meat.'

mV marker

In complementary distribution with fV (under unknown conditions - might have something to do with unaccusative/unergative distinction and/or thematic roles).

(9)

ù	m(u)	(*f(i))	őgìgò	mī	dū	tíŋɔ̂
1SG	?	(*PERF1)	glasses	my	take	lost
I have lost my glasses.'